Introduction to Human development, Life
Span development.
Historical changes happening in periods of the Life span
Human Development: An Ever-Evolving
Field
Human development: Scientific study of processes of change and
stability throughout the human life span.
Human Growth &
Development
Ø Growth and development begins at birth and ends at death
Ø During an entire lifetime, individuals have needs that must be
met
Ø Health care workers need to be aware of the various stages and
needs of the individual to provide quality health care.
Human Development:
An Ever-Evolving Field Human Development Today
Describe: Scientists observe
behavior in order to describe what happens in the lives of children and adults. Example: When do children say their first
words?
Explain: Scientists attempt to understand, or explain,
why observed behavior occurs—the cause of observed behavior. Example: How do children learn to use
language?
Predict: Scientists make educated guesses about what might happen in the
future to behavior. Example: Will delayed language development affect speech?
Intervene: Scientists use the
knowledge of causes of behavior to change or control behavior. Example: Can therapy help speech delays?
Periods of the Life Span Domains of
Human Development
Physical development:
Growth of the body and brain and change or stability in sensory capacities,
motor skills, and health.Biological processes
Cognitive development:
Change or stability in mental abilities, such as learning, memory, language,
thinking, moral reasoning, and creativity.
Cognitive
processes
Psychosocial development:
Change and stability in emotions, personality, and social relationships.
Socio-emotional
Processes
Biological, Cognitive, and
Socioemotional Processes
Influences on Development
1)
Individual differences
2)
Heredity
3)
Environment
4)
Maturation: Unfolding of a natural sequence of physical and behavioral changes,
including readiness to master new abilities.
Nature: The influence of heredity on development
Nurture: The influence of environment
on development
5)
Culture
6)
Ethnicity
Development is Contextual
Developmental Issues
Onset of Influences
Onset of Influences.
Imprinting
Phenomenon in which newly hatched birds instinctively follow the
first moving object they see; usually mother - the result of the readiness of
the nervous system to acquire certain information during a brief critical
period in early life.
Konrad Lorenz & his ducklings
Indicates predisposition or readiness to learn
The Effects of Early Experience
Questions to consider:
How important are early experiences and how much of an effect do
they have on a person’s later life?
Are there critical periods during which a child must be exposed
to certain stimulations or experiences (or forever be disadvantaged)?
How “plastic” is the child? That is, how can a child take and
still bounce back? How much can a child endure before his/her later development
will be permanently impaired?
Critical & Sensitive Periods
Critical and sensitive
periods are both times when the organism is biologically ready to most benefit
from a particular experience.
Sensitive Periods: adverse effects caused by missing a sensitive period may be
overcome at a later time, although with great difficulty.
Critical Periods: adverse effects caused by missing a critical period are
permanent.
The only clearly
demonstrated critical period in human beings involves early stimulation of
certain neural and body cells. Without such stimulation, these cells atrophy
and die e.g., visual neurons must have light during their early development or
they will die.
Historical changes happening in periods
of the Life span
1. Growth and Development Types
2. Physical: body growth
3. Mental: mind development
4. Emotional: feelings
5. Social: interactions and relationships with others
All
four types above occur in each stage of life span
Ø Infancy
Dramatic and rapid changes
Physical development– roll over, crawl, walk, grasp objects
Mental development—respond to cold, hunger, and pain by crying.
Begin to recognize surroundings and become aware of surroundings and people
Emotional development – show anger, distrust, happiness,
excitement, etc.
Social development – self-centeredness concept of the newborn to
recognition of others in their environment
Ø Early Childhood
Physical development – growth slower than in infancy. Muscle
coordination allows the child to run, climb, move freely. Can write, draw, use
a fork and knife
Mental development – verbal growth progresses, short attention
span, at end of stage ask questions, recognize letters, and some words
Emotional development – develop self-awareness and recognize the
effect they have on other people and things.
Children feel impatience and frustration as they try to do things beyond
their abilities.
Social development – at beginning of stage very self-centered
one year old to sociable six year old.
Strong attachment to parents.
Needs are food, shelter, protection, love and security.
Ø Late Childhood
Physical development– slow but steady. Muscle coordination is well developed and
children can engage in physical activity that require complex motor-sensory
coordination.
Mental development – developing quickly and much of the child’s
life centers around school. Reading and
writing skills are learned, understand abstract concepts like honesty, loyalty,
values and morals.
Ø Late Childhood
Emotional development -- the child achieves greater independence
and a more distinct personality. Fears
are replaced by the ability to cope.
Social development – focus on group oriented activities. They are more ready to accept the opinions of
others and learn to conform to rules & standards of behavior. Need for reassurance, parental approval, and
peer acceptance.
Adolescence
Physical development – growth spurts, muscle
coordination slows. Onset of puberty. Body shape and form changes.
Mental development – most foundations have
been set. Development primarily involves
an increase in knowledge and sharpening of skills. Learn to make decisions and accept
responsibility for actions.
Emotional development – emotional development
is often stormy and in conflict. Adolescents try to establish their identities
and independence. They respond more and
more to peer group influences.
Social development – spending less time
with family and more time with peer groups.
They attempt to develop self-identity and independence and seek security
from their peers. Toward the end of this
stage they develop a more mature attitude and develop patterns of behavior that
they associate with adult behavior.
Need for reassurance, support and understanding. Problems that develop in this stage can be
traced to conflict and feelings of inadequacy and insecurity.
Early Adulthood
Physical development – basically
complete. Muscles are developed, strong
and motor coordination is at its peak.
Mental development – young adults seek additional
education, choose careers and independence.
Emotional development – Young adults are
subjected to many emotional stresses related to career, marriage, family, etc.
Social development – moving away from peer
group, and tend to associate with others who have similar ambitions.
Middle Adulthood
Physical development – Graying of hair, skin
wrinkles, muscle tone decreases, mild hearing loss, visual acuity losses,
weight gain.
Mental development – can continue to
increase. Confident decision makers and excellent at analyzing situations.
Emotional development – can be a period of
contentment and satisfaction.
Social development -- Family relationships can decline as children
begin lives of their own and parents die. Friendships are with people with
similar interests and lifestyles.
Late Adulthood
Physical development – on the decline. Skin
becomes dry and wrinkles, “age spots” appear. Hair thins, muscles lose tone and
strength. Memory loss can occur and
reasoning ability can diminish.
Mental development – varies. People who remain mentally active and are
willing to learn new things tend to show fewer signs of decreased mental
ability
Emotional development – Emotional stability
also varies.
Social development – retirement can lead to
loss of self esteem, lost identity.
Death of spouse and friends cause changes in social relationships.
Life-Span Developmental
Approach
Paul B. Baltes
1) Development is lifelong (change never stops)
2) Development is
multidimensional (bio-psycho-social)
3) Development is multidirectional (gains and losses)
4) Relative influences of biology and culture shift over the
lifespan (less physical strength, more cultural strength)
5) Development involves changing resource allocations (compensation)
6) Development shows plasticity (can change with
practice/effort)
7) Development is influenced by the historical and cultural
context.
The stage of development in which Erikson
believed that children must gain a greater sense of personal control is known
as.
a) Trust vs Mistrust
b) Initiative vs Guilt
c) Autonomy vs Shame
and Doubt
d) Industry vs Inferiority
The issue in developmental psychology
that involves debate over the relative contributions of inheritance and the
environment is known as the.
Nature Vs Nurture Debate:
Early experiences Vs Later experiences debate.
Continuity Vs Discontinuity debate.
Abnormal behaviour Vs Individual behaviour debate.
A major strength of ecological theory is its framework for explaining.
A) environmental
influences on development.
B) Biological
influences on development.
C) Cognitive
development.
D) Effective
processes in development.
Ø Origins of Child Development Theories
ž 6th - 15th centuries, Medieval
period: Children
seen as little adults. Their clothing, worked at adult jobs, could be
married, were made into kings, were imprisoned or hanged as adults.
ž 16th Century, Reformation period: Children were considered to be born
evil, and must be civilized. A goal
emerged to raise children effectively.
ž 17th Century, Age of Enlightenment: Children were thought to develop in
response to nurturing.
ž Origins of Child Development Theories
ž 18th Century, Age of Reason: Children were considered noble
savages, born with an innate sense of morality.
ž Origins of Child Development Theories
›
19th Century, Industrial Revolution: Theories of natural selection and survival of the
fittest.
ž “Those individuals that possess
superior physical, behavioral, or other attributes are more likely to survive
than those that are not so well endowed”
ž Selection
›
Artificial
›
Natural
›
Darwin
made parallels between human growth and other animals.
ž 20th Century: Theories about children's development
expanded around the world.
ž Human Development: THEMES
ž The Nature / Nurture Theme
›
Genetics
versus environment
›
Both
interact to produce change
ž The Active / Passive Theme
›
Children
are active, determining how society treats them.
›
Children
are passive, being moulded by society
ž Human Development: THEMES
ž The Continuity / Discontinuity Theme
›
Change
occurs gradually and continuously
– Quantitative changes: change in
degree or amount
›
Change
occurs with abrupt changes or stages (discontinuous)
– Qualitative changes: changes in form
or kind.
Ø Five Theories (Perspectives) of Development
Psychological
ž Psychoanalytic (Freud)
ž Cognitive
ž Behavioral & Social Cognitive / Learning
Other
ž Ethological
ž Ecological
Ø THE PSYCHOANALYTIC VIEWPOINT
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
ž Work based on his therapy with troubled adults.
ž He emphasized that a child's personality is formed by
the ways which his parents managed his sexual and aggressive drives.
ž Unconscious motives are repressed
ž Development is a conflictual process
ž Sexual and aggressive instincts that must be served,
yet society dictates restraint
Ø Freudian Psychosexual Stages
Ø Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
ž Eight stages of development
›
Primary
human motivation is social
›
Eight
stages unfold over the life span
›
At
each stage, unique developmental task confronts individuals with crisis that
must be resolved
ž A Preview of Erikson’s Stages
Ø Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory
ž Children actively construct their
understanding of the world
›
Assimilation:
incorporation of new information into existing knowledge
›
Accommodation:
adjusting knowledge to fit new information and experience
Ø Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory
ž Culture guides cognitive development
ž Memory, attention, reasoning involves
learning to use society’s inventions
ž Cognitive growth is a socially
mediated activity
ž Stresses children’s active
interaction with social environments, proposed the Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD)
ž Learning Theory:
Behaviorism
ž We respond based on whether the
situation is:
– Painful or Threatening
– Pleasurable
ž Behaviorism:
Classical Conditioning
ž John Watson: Conditioning of Fear
ž Orphan boy ‘Little Albert’
ž Behaviorism:
Operant Conditioning
ž Individual learns the consequences of
‘operating’ on the environment
ž Learned relationship between behavior
and its consequences
ž B.F. Skinner formulated original ideas by working with animals,
then applied them to humans
ž Skinner’s Operant Learning Theory
›
Repeat
acts if outcomes are favorable, suppress
acts if outcomes are unfavorable
– Operant – initial voluntary act
– Reinforcer – increases probability of
act
– Punisher – decreases probability of
act
›
Development
depends on external stimuli
ž Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement
ž Increases likelihood of behavior reoccurring
›
Positive:
Giving a reward
– Candy for finishing a task
›
Negative:
Removing something aversive
– No chores for getting an A+ on
homework
ž Operant Conditioning:
Punishment
ž Decreases likelihood of behavior reoccurring
›
Positive:
Adding something aversive
– Getting scolded
›
Negative:
Removing something pleasant
– Taking away car keys
– Getting a ‘time out’
ž Social Learning Theory
ž Albert Bandura: Development is
“bidirectional”
›
Reciprocal
determinism—person acts on world as the world acts on the person
ž Observational Learning or Modeling
›
Children
choose “models to” imitate
ž Ethological Theory
ž Science of character
ž Behavior
›
Based
on study of animal behavior
›
Influenced
by biology, tied to evolution
›
Characterized
by critical or sensitive periods
›
Lorenz: imprinting is rapid, innate learning within a critical
period of time
›
Bowlby’s view
of infant’s attachment to care giver
ž THE ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS VIEWPOINT
ž Bronfenbrenner – ecological systems theory: a detailed analysis of
environmental influences
›
Contexts
for Development
– Natural environments are the major
source of influence for development
– Environment is a set of nested
structures
ž Ecological Theory
ž Development is influenced by five (05) environmental
systems,
ž Microsystem:
daily life
ž Mesosystem: relates microsystems
ž Exosystem:
influences from other social systems
ž Macrosystem:
culture
ž Chronosystem:
(time) personal/social history
